According to Lawrence Kohlberg, which milestone in moral reasoning is likely achieved last?

The milestone in moral reasoning that is typically achieved last, according to Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, is when the individual looks to his or her own conscience and performs right versus wrong based on universal principles of justice. This level is known as the post-conventional stage, where moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and the concept of justice, rather than merely conforming to social rules or expectations.

In this stage, individuals understand that laws and social norms may not always align with higher ethical principles. They begin to evaluate the justice of those principles and make decisions accordingly, often reflecting a mature moral perspective that transcends specific societal norms. Achieving this level of moral reasoning requires significant cognitive development and an understanding of complex moral dilemmas, which can take years of growth and experience.

The other options represent earlier stages of Kohlberg’s moral development framework. For instance, feelings of empathy and a desire to help others indicate a more immediate, emotional reaction and a focus on interpersonal relationships. Looking to laws and authority figures shows a reliance on external standards to determine right from wrong, which is characteristic of the conventional level. Seeking approval from others reflects even earlier stages where decisions are influenced by social acceptance and interpersonal consequences.